托福阅读---段落内容的组织结构近几年的托福阅读文章难度逐步增大，这种难度主要体现在四方面：词汇，句式，衔接和篇章。在同学们攻克了词汇和语法关后，就要学会从宏观上来把控文章，所以今天我们就衔接方面的内容和大家进行探讨。衔接主要是段落内部及段落之间通过何种方式进行语义连接。我们今天通过借鉴官方指南书中的文章来基本了解段落内部的组织结构。1分类式（classification）例子Many people have to communicate and work with members of other cultures,and social skills training is now being given to some of these who are about to work abroad.Intercultural communication is necessary for several kinds of people.Tourists are probably the largest group,though they stay for the shortest periods and need to master only a few simple situations…这个段落是典型的分类式写法，把需要进行跨文化交流的人分成几类，接下来分别描述，首当其冲的就是旅游者。官方指南1）Desertification is accomplished primary through the loss of stabilizing natural vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of soil by wind and water.(P)In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away,leaving a stony surface.In other cases,the finer particles may be removed,while the sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridge of sand.(I)这段内容是一个典型的总分结构，即point+illustration。观点很明显是说沙漠化的原因是植被消失，土壤侵蚀。接下来的论证时进一步补充说明植被消失之后，土壤可能会碰到的状况，分成了两种情况。一种情况松散的土壤完全被吹走，还有一种情况小颗粒被带走，沙子大小的颗粒聚集成沙山，进而逐步累积形成沙漠化。2）Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressure to provide them with land and fuel.(P)In wet periods,the land may be able to respond to these stresses.During the dry periods that are common phenomenon along the desert margins,the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity to,and desertification results.(I)这个段落同样讲沙漠化的原因，内部也是总分结构，说的是人变多，土地的压力增大这个原因。然后分情况强化论点，天气湿润还行；天气干燥，土地就没法处理这种人口压力，会导致沙漠化。3）Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes:over cultivation,overgrazing,firewood gathering and over irrigation.文章之后则是分别阐述每一个活动为什么造成沙漠化。其他信号词总结：Categories;classification;groups;parts;types;characteristics;elements;kinds;sorts;ways;classes 2比较对比式（Comparison and Contrast）比较式Elephants are the biggest land creatures on Earth,and among the smartest and most endearing.In their lives and social dynamics they resemble humans in many ways.文章开头谈到resemble，表明之后的文章会把大象同人作比较。其他信号词总结：compare,like/alike,resembles,in comparison,likewise,similar,in the same way/manner,parallels,similarly官方指南These Kinetoscope arcades were modeled on phonograph parlors,which had proven successful for Edison several years earlier.In the phonograph parlors…The Kinetoscope parlor functioned in a similar way.很明显这里是比较式写法，爱迪生同志所发明的K机器（用于早期的peepshow当中的机器）的建造模型是留声机。对比式Long lumped together by ordinary folks and scholars alike,envy and jealousy are not a single,formless“super emotion”.On the contrary,they are distinct,with different components,and are in fact elicited by completely different situations and in completely different settings.（P）According to a Georgetown University psychologist…envy occurs when a person lacks another person’s superior quality,achievement,or possession,and desires it---or wishes that the other person lacked it.Jealousy,by contrast,occurs in the context of a close relationship when a person fears losing an important thing to a rival---in particular,losing a relationship that is important to one’s sense of self.Jealousy,by contrast,occurs in the context of a close relationship when a person fears losing an important thing to a rival---in particular,losing a relationship that is important to one’s sense of self.这一小段文章的topic是jealousy和envy两词的区别。然后进行对比论证，同时辅以举例论证。举例十分的形象。以后我们就知道了，当我们和男朋友讨论恋爱史时，他如果满脸笑容的谈到说他的上一任是刘亦菲时，你的内心很有可能会同时经历两种情感。你嫉妒（envy）那个前女友，那么纯洁美丽；同时你更嫉妒（jealous）他的一脸笑容，那满足的神情，因为你觉得这可能会破坏你们的恋爱关系。其他信号词总结：Although,however,on the other hand,as opposed to,in contrast to,rather than,but,instead,unlike,conversely,nevertheless,whereas,difference,on the contrary,yet,different官方指南1 With the advent of projection in 1895-1896,motion pictures became the ultimate form of consumption.Previously,large audience had viewed spectacles at the theatre.But the movie differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment,which depended on either live performance or in the case of slide-and-lantern shows the active involvement of a master ceremonies who assembled to final program.本文是在讲投影技术出现之后，电影成了消费形式。之后的论证部分通过对比指出电影的本质是不需要现场演出或者是大师的积极参与。2 But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed.Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reduction in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression.Other studies,however,suggest that letting some steam actually encourages more aggression later on.探讨的是catharsis（泻药）的用途，当然实际是指发泄（vent aggression）的效用。这一小段内部大方向上说是分类结构，不过这个分类的实质是正反对比的两种理论：一些认为发泄会减少紧张，另一些认为会进一步鼓励攻击性行为。3 Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans…After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers.这一小段是以1815作为分界线，来吧生产形式作一个对比，之前是手工，之后是机器。3举例子（Example）托福阅读的文章科普性比较重，所以例子基本以科学研究为主。官方指南例子一Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values by the ways in which we interpret our situations,and by choice.For example,people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are likely to act aggressively whereas…这个例子举了两组人来论证我们的价值观会影响我们的行为（攻击性）。大家可以借鉴学术文章举例子的方式，很少用my neighbor Jack这样具体的例子，一般都是泛泛的谈，相对具有说服力。例子二Theorists hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior,including aggression.Sigmund Freud,for example,believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life…这一段用的是弗洛伊德的例子，本质上是科学研究。结合例一例二，大家以后写学术文章例子的思路就有了，少举太过个人的例子，可以侧重整体概念和名人例子。例子三Sociobiology views mush social behavior,including aggressive behavior,as genetically determined.Consider Darwin’s theory of evolution.Darwin held that…这一段要表明攻击行为性是基因决定的，之后引入达尔文进化论，本质上还是科学研究。模拟试题1 Several studies how that getting fewer than six hours of sleep a night can impair short-term memory,coordination,reaction time,and judgment.In one study of drivers,researchers reported that sleep deprivation has some of the same hazardous effects as being drunk…这一段是要来说明缺乏睡眠对人体可能会产生的影响，然后通过引入以驾驶员作为主体的例子来论证。2 However,no measure of early family environment or early-adult competence remained a significant predictor of psychological well being at the end of middle age.One study of men revealed that at the age of 65,there were no childhood or early-adulthood characteristics that distinguished between men who had turned out well and those who had not.However,what did predict success and well being at the age of 65 was the man’s health and adjustment at midlife.这篇文章讲生活幸福感。这一段的观点是家庭因素对于中年男人而言就不是那么重要了。什么才重要？文中指出是你中年时的抉择决定你之后生活是否幸福的。这一观点可以马上运用到SAT的写作中，Is identity something you are born with or something you create for yourself?或者是雅思作文中对于nature（先天因素）和nurture（后天培育）哪个更重要的问题的讨论信号词总结：for example,for instance,to illustrate,specifically,such as实验论证是学术文章（比如雅思考试）中间段落论证的杀手锏，这里给大家提供一个简单的对比试验，供大家参考来论证你的观点。An experiment carried out by Japanese Central Educational Agency explores students’performances in relation to teachers’encouragement,and revealed that students who get praise,even overrated,perform better than those who don’t get praises.A number of fifty students are divided into two groups.In one group,the teacher uses conservative method to teach,students get only conservative praise if they performed good,and will be criticized if they made mistakes.In another group,the students are highly praised if well performed,and will still get encouragement if they made mistakes.They overall performance was tested through a standardized examination at the end of two months.The group of students who get praise scored 15 percent higher than the other group.Such an experiment further proved that encouragement,even overrated,will have a positive effect on people.4因果论证(cause and effect)例子一Even in the areas that retain a soil cover,the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil’s ability to absorb substantial quantities of water.The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces,sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration.Water absorption is greatly reduced;consequently runoff is increased,resulting in accelerated erosion rates.The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation,so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established.这是一个非常漂亮的因果链论证观点的段落，值得背诵，它的逻辑关系如下。P:即使在有土壤覆盖的地方，植被减少也会导致土壤吸水能力下降。为什么呢？雨水打在松散的土壤上---移走密封小粘土颗粒（粘土可以大量吸水）---产生一个不能让水进入的表面---结果是流出的水变多---进一步导致土壤被水侵蚀；同时土地吸水能力不足---土地干旱---进一步导致植被减少---恶性循环。例子二In some regions,the increase in desert areas is occurring largely as the result of a trend toward drier climatic conditions.Continued gradual global warming has produced an increase in aridity for some areas over the past few thousand years.The process may be accelerated in subsequent decades if global warming resulting from air pollution seriously increases.这一段还是介绍沙漠化的原因，这里讲的原因是天气干旱。如何论证。空气污染导致---全球变暖---produce(隐形结果词)aridity(dryness)---沙漠区域增加其他信号词总结：表原因的词Because,for this reason,since,cause,on account of,why,due to表结果的词语As a result,in effect,therefore,consequently,results in,thus,hence,the outcome is总结以上是托福阅读文章主要的一些段落组织方式。把握好这个基本框架，可以帮助各位更快的确定这一段的主要内容，更为重要的是把握以后自己写作的段落论证方式。Today American Gothic pervades our popular culture.On dental hygiene posters the man holds a toothbrush instead of his pitchfork,urging us to brush our teeth.In short,American Gothic has become an infinitely variable mirror in which Americans can see themselves.
